Food Science Unit 3 FATS & OILS

Introduction

• The basic use of fats and oils in cookery is to add richness and flavor to food and as a cooking medium to fry or cook food. They improve the texture of various preparations such as cakes, pastries and biscuits.
• Fats and oils are found in plants, animals and marine foods.
• They are organic compounds composed of C, H and O
• Collectively known as LIPIDS
• Immiscible in water but soluble in organic solvent. (Ether, Chloroform, Benzene and Acetone)
• Unlike carbohydrates – contains small proportion of O and larger proportion of H and C
• Provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates.

Classification based on origin

Classification based on degree of saturation

Difference between Fat and Oils

FAT                                                                             OIL                                                     

Remains solid at room temperature.                                    Remains liquid at room temperature.         
Relatively more saturated.                                                   Relatively unsaturated.
Relatively higher melting point.                                          Low melting point.                                     
More stable.                                                                         Less stable.                     

RANCIDITY

• Development of any undesirable odour and flavor in fats and oils causing spoilage.
• Observed when fats and oils are stored for some time.
• Rancidity develops in fats, oils and the fatty phases of foods such as pickles, fried snacks, cakes, cheese and salad dressings.
• Different fats and oils  show varying degree of resistance to spoilage.
• Vegetable oils deteriorate slow.
• Animal fats deteriorate fast.
• Marine oils having high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids deteriorate most rapidly.

Types of rancidity

HYDROLYTIC – by presence of moisture

OXIDATIVE – by presence of oxygen

HYDROLYTIC RANCIDITY

• Hydrolytic rancidity is brought about by hydrolysis of triglyceride molecule to glycerol and free fatty acids by the  presence of moisture in oils. The rate of hydrolysis is hastened by-
• The presence of enzymes e.g. lipase present in oils which have not been subjected to heat treatment.
• Microorganisms such as molds, yeasts and bacteria present in oils or contaminants during processing.

OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY or AUTO OXIDATION 

• The spontaneous uptake of oxygen by the unsaturated oils exposed to air is known as oxidative rancidity.
• It is the most common and important type of rancidity which results in the production of rancid or tallow flavours.
• Moisture and impurities do not have any effect on oxidative rancidity
• It is a chain reaction.
• Once it begins, it is continuous process.
• Occurs in two stages.

OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY or AUTO OXIDATION 

  First stage
Ø  Induction period fat and oil takes up oxygen from the air.
Ø  Oxygen from the air requires a free radical to combine with the fat.
Ø  Heat light and traces of metal help to form free radicals.
Ø  Free radical is formed to the carbon (by removal of 1 hydrogen molecule) adjacent to the carbon involved in double bond.
Ø  The free radical combines with oxygen (O2) forming a peroxide.
Ø  The new free radical combines with another hydrogen atom of another fatty acid to form hydro peroxide and a new free radical.
Ø  This new free radical again takes up two oxygen atoms.
Ø  The chain reaction continues till all unsaturated fatty acids are used up or all oxygen gets exhausted.
    Second stage   
Ø  The peroxide and hydro-peroxide formed rapidly break down into aldehydes and alcohols
Ø  Break down contributes to the undesirable flavor and odor in rancid fat.

REVERSION

• Many fats undergo a change in flavour before turning rancid.
• This change in flavor is very different  from rancid flavour and is called reversion.
• In rancidity the change in flavour is same for all fats.
• In reversion the flavor may be buttery, beany, grassy, painty and fishy.
• Reversion is seen in fish oils, linseed and soya bean oil.
• For reversion very small amount of oxygen is required as compared to oxidative rancidity.

Difference between rancidity and reversion

Factors leading to rancidity and reversion

Temperature

High storage temperature accelerates the development of odour and flavours in fats and oils.
 Moisture
Presence of moisture in butter and oils brings about hydrolytic rancidity. Clarified butter or Pure ghee does not turn rancid because the moisture is removed by heat.

 Air 
The amount of air in contact with the fat or oil is an important factor in determining its shelf life. Auto-oxidation occurs in the presence of oxygen and reversion occurs with very less amount of oxygen. Potato chips and salted nut turn rancid at a faster rate due to their large surface area.

Light
Light accelerates both reversion and rancidity.

Metals
The presence of metal in traces accelerates the development of both reversion and rancidity as they are active pro-oxidant. Metal contamination can occur from equipment used for extraction and refining of oil.

Degree of unsaturation
This is an important criterion for oxidative rancidity and reversion.
Oils containing high proportions of unsaturated fatty acids and shortening made from such oils show flavour reversion.

Absence of anti-oxidants
The natural presence of antioxidants or addition to oils prevents rancidity. Antioxidant takes up oxygen and gets oxidized thereby preventing rancidity.

Prevention of rancidity

• Store fat at low temperature in a cool, dark place.
• Use airtight container with minimum headspace.
• Keep away from strong smelly foods
• Use steel and aluminum container for storage. Copper and iron containers accelerate rancidity.
• Avoid undue exposure to light and air.
• Addition of anti-oxidants delay the rancidity
• Natural antioxidants present in oil are vitamin E and lecithin.

Synthetic Antioxidants

    I.          BHT – butylated hydroxyl toluene
   II.          BHA – butylated hydroxyl anisole
   III.         TBHQ – tertiary butyl hydroquinone
   IV.         EDTA – ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid
If fats and oils are stored for longer period of time they should be hydrogenated. It increases their shelf life and prevents rancidity

Effect of heat on fats and oils

During cooking or prolonged heating of fats and oils certain changes are seen:

• There is an increase in the free fatty acid content.
• Smoke point is lowered.
• Iodine number decreases.
• Melting point falls.
• Fat turns darker in colour.
• Fats get polymerized.

*The smoke point of an oil or fat is the temperature at which, under specific and defined conditions, an oil begins to produce a continuous bluish smoke that becomes clearly visible.

*All commonly used fats and particularly those high in polyunsaturated fatty acids tend to form larger molecules (known broadly as polymers) when heated under extreme conditions of temperature and time.

Polymerization

• This takes place because of the intense heat which the fat is subjected to during frying.
• Lipid breakdown takes place and free fatty acids are released.
• Fatty acids undergo further changes and form polymers.
• The polymers increase the viscosity of the hot fat.
• The colour darkens and quality deteriorates.
• Gum may be formed at the edge of the vessel.
• It is of utmost importance to avoid unnecessary heating of fats and oils and controlling frying temperature and time.

Care of Fats and Oils

• Fats and oils are used in many preparations and as a method of cooking food. If care is not taken while heating and storing fats, it may result in wastage of food as well as fat used for preparing it.
• Do not overheat fats, as they decompose at high temperature.
• Follow a time and temperature chart for frying food.
• Cover fats when left in the deep fryer and ensure that the temperature does not exceed 90 – 95 0 Celsius.
• Strain fat after use and used fat should be stored in closed containers in the refrigerator.
• When fat has to be reused for frying, replace with equal quantity of fresh fat.
• Do not use fats with a low smoke point for frying.
• To prevent fat from going rancid, it should be stored in an airtight container away from light.
• Fat should be stored in tall containers to keep minimum surface area exposed.
• Copper or rusted containers should not be used for storing fats.

Extraction of Fats and Oils

There are three methods for extraction of fats and oils from animal or vegetable tissues.

• Rendering
• Pressing
• Solvent Extraction

Rendering

This method is mainly used for extracting animal fat from fatty tissues. The tissue from which fat is to be extracted is carefully removed from the carcass and chopped or minced.
Rendering is of two types: Wet rendering and Dry rendering.

Wet Rendering: It is carried out in the presence of water. The chopped tissue is treated with very hot water or steam. Fat melts and forms  a layer on top, which is skimmed off. Fat obtained by this method has a bland flavor and complete extraction is not obtained. Antioxidants are added to prevent rancidity.

Dry Rendering: The chopped tissues are heated without addition of water. Lipids escape from the cells and melted fat is removed by draining and squeezing the fat out of the residue.

Pressing

In this method, oil is extracted by the application of high pressure to oilseeds or fruits rich in oil. The oil obtained is filtered to remove any unwanted matter. Oil obtained from the first pressing is called virgin oil and is particularly bland in taste.

In hot pressing, the oil bearing tissue is rolled, crushed or ground into flakes, and then heated by steam to 70 degree Celsius. The hot tissues are pressed to extract oil. Along with oil, gum and free fatty acids are also extracted.

Solvent Extraction

The crushed or flaked tissue is mixed along with the solvent to extract oil. This method is used to extract the fat remaining in the seedcake after pressing. The solvent is separated from the mixture by evaporation.

Refining of Oil

The oil extracted by rendering, pressing or solvent extraction is called crude oil. It may contain undesirable constituents such as gums, free fatty acids etc.
Crude oil needs several types of treatment to extend its shelf life and make it suitable and pure for use.

Steps in refining oil are as follows:

1.Settling – The crushed solid part is allowed to settle down and is removed by filtration.
2.Degumming and neutralization – The gum and free fatty acids are removed by steam distillation.
3.Bleaching – This step removes undesirable colouring and flavouring contaminants. Oil is filtered through activated charcoal till it becomes light in colour.
4.Steam deodourisation – Steam is injected into the hot oil under pressure to get rid of unwanted odour and then it is cooled rapidly.

Winterization of Oil

• After steam deodorization oils are chilled rapidly without stirring.
• Large filterable crystals are formed.
• These crystals are made of heavy triglycerides with high melting point.
• Separated by filtration and the cold viscous oil obtained is said to be winterized.
• Winterized oils do not solidify in refrigerator.
• Suitable to be used in food which require refrigeration e.g. salad dressings and mayonnaise which can be poured even when chilled.
• Olive oil is not winterized or deodorized as flavor is lost.

Hydrogenation of oil

• Liquid oils can be converted to solid fats by the process known as hydrogenation.
• In this process there is an addition of hydrogen to unsaturated fat thus converting oils into solid fats.
• Hydrogenation takes place in a reactor where hydrogen gas is bubbled through the liquid in the presence of nickel as a catalyst.  
• In this process some of the double bonds between the carbon atoms of the fatty acids portion of the triglyceride molecule are broken and hydrogen is added. This chemical change makes the fatty acid more saturated. The melting points of the fats are thereby increased.
• Hydrogenation increases the stability of oils and prevents it from spoilage due to oxidation which results in rancidity.
• Hydrogenation is utilized in the manufacture of a wide variety of fats such as vanaspati and margarine.
• Sometimes additives such as antioxidants, Vit. A, D are added to the fat.
• Air maybe whipped in, to impart a snow white color.
• Palm oil, palmolein, rice bran, cotton seed, sunflower, maize, soyabean, groundnut, and sesame oils are generally hydrogenated.

Shortenings

A shortening is defined as a fat, solid at room temperature, which can be used to give foods a crumbly and crisp texture such as pastry.  Examples of fat used as “shorteners” include butter, margarine, vegetable oils and lard.

• Oils and fats are used in a baked product to reduce the development of gluten giving the foods a crumbly texture.  The fats and oils break down the gluten into “shorter strands” hence the term shorteners.  Coating the flour in fat prevents the flour from absorbing water hindering the formation of gluten.  If too much gluten developed, the food would be stretchy and elastic.
• Shortening is used in most doughs and batters, to give the baked product a crisp and crumbly texture.   Rubbing the fat in causes the baked product to have a flaky texture, as the dough is separated into layers.  When fat is whisked with sugar, a process called creaming, the texture will be more like a cake, and be soft and springy.
•   Fat that covers the greatest surface area of the flour particle in a particular baked product is said to have the greatest shortening power

Factors affecting shortening power of fats

• Nature of fat – greatest unsaturation have greatest shortening power.
• Concentration – concentration of fat increases, shortening power  also increases.
• Temperature – fats are less plastic and oils are more viscous at low temp.
• Other ingredients – emulsified fat and oils have less shortening power
• Manipulation of fat – proper creaming and stirring of fat increases the shortening power

Popular fats and oils

• Oils – from different oil seeds are available refined or unrefined as a single type of oil or as a blend of two or more oils.
• Butter – available as salted and unsalted.
• Spreads – emulsions of oil and water. Available in various flavours. They are blends of hydrogenated oils, water, milk solids, flavouring and colouring. They are easy to spread as compared to butter and margarine. They provide less calories as the air and water content is more.
• Vanaspati –prepared by hydrogenation of oil.
• Margarine –  a substitute for butter which is fortified with vitamin A & D. 
• Suet – fat around the kidneys of animals.
• Dripping – obtained while roasting meat and used for shallow frying.
• Olive oil – used for salad dressings.
• Fresh cream – obtained by skimming whole milk. Synthetic cream is also available, which is prepared from vegetable oils, water, sugar, soy proteins and added flavor.

Commercial uses of fats and oils

• Fats and oils are used in the food industry because of their ability to
• Increase tenderness and make the product soft.
• Fry or cook food.
• Crispness of biscuits.
• Puff pastry.
• Soft and tender cakes with high volume.
• Get creamed and form foams.
• Impart flavor, colour and aroma to food.
• Softer bread.

Communication UNIT 2 - Listening on the Job

What’s Listening?

According to the International Listening Association-

Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or non-verbal messages.

Levels of Listening

Based on the effectiveness of the listening process, three levels of listening have been identified.
Level 1 is that of Non-listening and is  the least desirable, followed by
Level 2 which is Passive Listening.
Level 3 is Active Listening, which is most desirable. Though we listen at all the three levels during the course of the day depending on our interest and situation, it is beneficial to move to Level 3 for maximum listening effectiveness.
Good managers and leaders spend more time listening at Level 3.

Level 1 – Non-Listening

Here, the listener may appear  to be listening but actually he is more occupied with his own thoughts. 

He is minimally aware of the speaker speaking. He is likely to appear detached and will be unresponsive and passive.
Not really listening to the speaker .Really just waiting for your turn to speak. Already decided what you are going to say.
Eg.
In a hurry, thinking about the next thing.
Collecting specific information.
You think you already know the answer

Level 2 – Passive Listening

Passive listening is more about hearing than actually listening.
The listener superficially hears the words but does not understand in depth what is being said.
He concentrates on the word content of the message rather than the feelings and emotions associated with the message.
He does not get much involved in the communication activity, and rather than contributing equally to the conversational exchange, he is merely spoken to.
Nodding but not really paying attention.
 Doing other things at the same time.
 Can’t replay back what the person said.
Eg.
You’re making the tea whilst talking to your friends/kids/parents.
Reading your email whilst talking

Level 3 – Active Listening

This is the most desirable form of listening wherein the active listener gives full attention to what is being said. The listener concentrates on what is being said and also motivates the speaker to speak, making it easier for the speaker to deliver the message.
An active listener not only comprehends the message better but is also in a better position to remember and recall the message. He not only pays attention to the word content but also concentrates on the emotional and non-verbal aspect of the message. In active listening, the listener is directly involved in the conversation. He provides feedback to the speaker and voices his opinions and arguments.

Characteristics of Active Listeners

1.Active listeners are willing to give the speaker a chance to develop his or her ideas.
2. Active listeners are open-minded about people who look or sound different from themselves.
3. Active listeners can follow several methods of organization—even poorly organized material will be listened to with some degree of tolerance.
4. Active listeners are likely to listen even more attentively when the material becomes difficult. It becomes a challenge to them.

Types of listening

Most people, most of the time, take listening for granted, it’s something that just happens.  It is only when you stop to think about listening and what it entails that you begin to realise that listening is in fact an important skill that needs to be nurtured and developed.
Listening is perhaps the most important of all interpersonal skills .
Effective listening is very often the foundation of strong relationships with others, at home, socially, in education and in the workplace.

Types of listening - Critical Listening

Critical listening is usually needed when we suspect that we may be listening to a biased source of information.
This involves not only comprehending the message but also evaluating and analyzing the message being received in light of one’s own background. It involves judging the acceptability of what is said depending on how logical one finds it to be.

 Critical listening is also associated with being able to detect propaganda devices employed by a communicator.In adjusting your critical listening, focus on the following guidelines:
• Keep an open mind.
• Avoid filtering out difficult messages.
• Recognize your own biases.
• Avoid uncritical listening when you need to make evaluations and judgments.
• Recognize and combat the normal tendency to sharpen.
• Analyze the audience and adapt the message to the listeners.

Types of listening - Empathic Listening

As the term suggests, the listener tries to demonstrate empathy for the speaker.
It can also be described as listening “between the lines”. When we listen between the lines we heighten our awareness and interpersonal sensitivity to the entire message a person may be trying to communicate.
Empathy is perception and communication by resonance, be identification, by experiencing in ourselves some reflection of the emotional tone that is being experienced by the other person.

• Empathic listening serves as a reward or encouragement to the speaker. 
• It communicates your caring and acceptance and reaffirms the person’s sense of worth. This style of listening seems to be most important in terms of strengthening or improving a positive interpersonal relationship between the parties involved.
• Empathic listening often requires the opposite frame of mind from that required for critical listening.
• Empathic listening implies a willingness not to judge, evaluate, or criticize but rather to be an accepting,permissive, and understanding listener.

Becoming an empathic requires focusing on the following guidelines:
• A greater emphasis on listening than on talking. • Responding to that which is personal rather than abstract.
• Following the other in his exploration rather than leading him into areas we think he should be exploring.
• Clarifying what the other person has said about his own thoughts and feelings rather than asking questions or telling him what we believe he should be thinking, seeing, or feeling.
• Responding to the feelings implicit in what the other has said rather than the assumptions or “content” that he has talked about.
• Trying to get into the other person’s inner frame of reference rather than listening and responding from our own frame of reference.
• The speaker is more apt to keep talking (vs. defending, blaming, shutting down, or withdrawing). This can build trust, intimacy, and relationships, over time.

Types of listening - Selective Listening

Listening is done only partly or selectively. It involves selecting the desired part of the message and ignoring the undesired part of the message. The attention of the listener is not focused and the listener keeps switching off and on.

Types of listening - Rapport Listening

When trying to build rapport with others we can engage in a type of listening that encourages the other person to trust and like us. A salesman, for example, may make an effort to listen carefully to what you are saying as a way to promote trust and potentially make a sale.  This type of listening is common in situations of negotiation.

Barriers to Effective Listening

The factors which act as impediments to effective listening and are considered as barriers to effective listening can be classified into the following:

1. PHYSICAL BARRIER:

Noise, poor acoustics, malfunctioning of the mechanical devices being used, frequent interruptions and uncomfortable seating arrangements are physical barriers that hamper effective listening. The first step of the listening process is hearing, and extraneous noise disturbs the hearing process.
Extraneous noise disturbs both the listener and the speaker. In case a device like a microphone or telephone is being used, then the malfunctioning of the device will act as a hurdle or it may also result in the failure of transmission of the message from the speaker to the listener. Poor acoustics of the room or uncomfortable seating arrangements may make it difficult for the listener to concentrate on the speaker.

Interruptions by other people or by the telephone while someone is speaking disturb the concentration of the listener, frustrate the speaker and make the listening process less effective. Message overload, which involves listening to a lot of information one after another, also makes it impossible to listen attentively after a certain point.
Thus, we can summarize the physical barriers to include:
  Noise
  Poor acoustics
  Defective mechanical devices
  Frequent interruptions
  Uncomfortable seating arrangements and environment
  Message overload

 People-related Barriers
Both the speaker and the listener influence the communication process. People-related barriers can be both physiological and psychological.
Physiological Barriers
1. State of Health - The physical condition of the individual affects the listening ability. Fever, pain or any other form of bodily discomfort makes it difficult for an individual to listen attentively. Similarly poor health conditions of a speaker reduce his ability to speak well and this in turn reduces the listening efficiency of the listener.
2. Disability
Hearing is the first step of the listening process and, therefore, hearing deficiencies may lead to poor listening. Similarly, speech disorders of the speaker may make speech incoherent to the listener. At times the speaker’s accent, though not a disability, may make it difficult for the listener to comprehend. Similarly, when a speaker speaks very rapidly, it may also result in an unclear message reaching the listener.
3. Wandering Attention
Research  shows  that the human  mind can process words at the rate of about 500 per minute, whereas a speaker speaks at the rate of about 150 words per minute. The difference between the two is quite large-350 words per minute. This leaves the listener with sufficient time to let his mind wander. The listener has to be careful of this rather than let his mind wander. Spending the time concentrating on the message and analyzing it would improve listening.

Psychological Barriers

Psychological barriers relate to attitudinal and behavioral aspects. These include the following:
Being Unsure of the Speaker’s Ability
Based on past experience or inputs from sources, the listener may have a preconceived notion of the speaker’s ability. He may perceive the speaker to not be well informed, or to be lacking in depth and ability. This acts as a barrier to the listening process as the listener will not listen to what the speaker has to say.

Personal Anxiety
Sometimes we are preoccupied with personal concerns and anxieties. This makes it difficult to perceive what is being said and thus acts as a barrier to effective listening.


Attitude
Many times the attitude of the listener acts as a barrier to effective listening. The listener may be highly egocentric with a ‘know it all attitude’ and may not listen because he feels that he already knows what the listener has to say. A casual attitude on the part of the listener towards listening, assuming it can be done without much concentration and effort, also acts as a barrier to listening.
An overly critical attitude of the listener may shift the focus of listening from what is being said to noticing faults and errors in accent, delivery, appearance of the speaker, grammar, and so on.
Impatience
The listener may not have the patience to wait for the other person to finish what he has to say. He may be intolerant or may be eager to add his own points to the discussion. As a result, his desire to speak overcomes his desire to listen, thus acting as a barrier.

Guidelines for effective listening

In today's high-tech, high-speed, high-stress world, communication is more important then ever, yet we seem to devote less and less time to really listening to one another. 

Genuine listening has become a rare gift—the gift of time. It helps build relationships, solve problems, ensure understanding, resolve conflicts, and improve accuracy. At work, effective listening means fewer errors and less wasted time.
At home, it helps develop resourceful, self-reliant kids who can solve their own problems. Listening builds friendships and careers.

Step 1: Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.

Talking to someone while they scan the room, study a computer screen, or gaze out the window is like trying to hit a moving target. How much of the person's divided attention you are actually getting? Fifty percent? Five percent?
Eye contact is considered a basic ingredient of effective communication. When we talk, we look each other in the eye. That doesn't mean that you can't carry on a conversation from across the room, or from another room, but if the conversation continues for any length of time, you (or the other person) will get up and move. The desire for better communication pulls you together.
Step 1: Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.
Do your conversational partners the courtesy of turning to face them. Put aside papers, books, the phone and other distractions. Look at them, even if they don't look at you.
Shyness, uncertainty, shame, guilt, or other emotions, along with cultural taboos, can inhibit eye contact in some people under some circumstances. Excuse the other guy, but stay focused yourself.

Step 2: Be attentive, but relaxed.

Now that you've made eye contact, relax. You don't have to stare fixedly at the other person. You can look away now and then and carry on like a normal person. The important thing is to be attentive. The dictionary says that to "attend" another person means to:

• be present
• give attention
• apply or direct yourself
• pay attention
• remain ready to serve

Mentally screen out distractions, like background activity and noise. In addition, try not to focus on the speaker's accent or speech mannerisms to the point where they become distractions. Finally, don't be distracted by your own thoughts, feelings, or biases.

Step 3: Keep an open mind.

Listen without judging the other person or mentally criticizing the things she tells you. If what she says alarms you, go ahead and feel alarmed, but don't say to yourself, "Well, that was a stupid move." As soon as you indulge in judgmental bemusements, you've compromised your effectiveness as a listener.
Listen without jumping to conclusions. Remember that the speaker is using language to represent the thoughts and feelings inside her brain. You don't know what those thoughts and feelings are and the only way you'll find out is by listening.
Don't be a sentence-grabber. Some people can't slow their mental pace enough to listen effectively, so they try to speed up the speaker’s by interrupting and finishing their sentences

Step 4: Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is saying.

Allow your mind to create a mental model of the information being communicated. Whether a literal picture, or an arrangement of abstract concepts, your brain will do the necessary work if you stay focused, with senses fully alert. When listening for long stretches, concentrate on, and remember, key words and phrases.
When it's your turn to listen, don’t spend the time planning what to say next. You can't rehearse and listen at the same time. Think only about what the other person is saying.
Finally, concentrate on what is being said, even if it bores you. If your thoughts start to wander, immediately force yourself to refocus.

Step 5: Don't interrupt and don't impose your "solutions."

Children used to be taught that it's rude to interrupt. I'm not sure that message is getting across anymore. Certainly the opposite is being modeled on the majority of talk shows and reality programs, where loud, aggressive, in-your-face behavior is condoned, if not encouraged.
Interrupting sends a variety of messages. It says:

• "I'm more important than you are."
• "What I have to say is more interesting, accurate or relevant."
• "I don't really care what you think."
• "I don't have time for your opinion."
• "This isn't a conversation, it's a contest, and I'm going to win."

We all think and speak at different rates. If you are a quick thinker and an agile talker, the burden is on you to relax your pace for the slower, more thoughtful communicator—or for the guy who has trouble expressing himself.

When listening to someone talk about a problem, refrain from suggesting solutions. Most of us don't want your advice anyway. If we do, we'll ask for it. Most of us prefer to figure out our own solutions. We need you to listen and help us do that. Somewhere way down the line, if you are absolutely bursting with a brilliant solution, at least get the speaker's permission. Ask, "Would you like to hear my ideas?"

Step 6: Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions.

When you don't understand something, of course you should ask the speaker to explain it to you. But rather than interrupt, wait until the speaker pauses. Then politely excuse yourself and say like, "Back up a second. I didn't understand what you just said about…"

Step 7: Ask questions only to ensure understanding.

At lunch, a colleague is excitedly telling you about her a deal that she struck with a client. In the course of this, she mentions that she that a mutual friend works at the clients office. You jump in with, "Oh, I haven't heard from her in ages. How is she?" and, just like that, discussion shifts to her divorce, and the poor kids, which leads to a comparison of custody laws, and before you know it an hour is gone and the deal is a distant memory.
This particular conversational affront happens all the time. Our questions lead people in directions that have nothing to do with where they thought they were going. Sometimes we work our way back to the original topic, but very often we don't.
When you notice that your question has led the speaker astray, take responsibility for getting the conversation back on track.

Step 8: Try to feel what the speaker is feeling.

If you feel sad when the person with whom you are talking expresses sadness, joyful when she expresses joy, fearful when she describes her fears—and convey those feelings through your facial expressions and words—then your effectiveness as a listener is assured. Empathy is the heart and soul of good listening.
To experience empathy, you have to put yourself in the other person's place and allow yourself to feel what it is like to be her at that moment. This is not an easy thing to do. It takes energy and concentration. But it is a generous and helpful thing to do, and it facilitates communication like nothing else does.

Step 9: Give the speaker regular feedback.

Show that you understand where the speaker is coming from by reflecting the speaker's feelings. "You must be thrilled!" "What a terrible ordeal for you." "I can see that you are confused." If the speaker's feelings are hidden or unclear, then occasionally paraphrase the content of the message. Or just nod and show your understanding through appropriate facial expressions and an occasional well-timed "hmmm" or "uh huh.“

Step 10: Pay attention to what isn't said—to nonverbal cues.

Face to face with a person, you can detect enthusiasm, boredom, or irritation very quickly in the expression around the eyes, the set of the mouth, the slope of the shoulders. These are clues you can't ignore. When listening, remember that words convey only a fraction of the message.

NOTETAKING

Effective notetaking involves extracting and recording the important ideas covered in lecture in a way that will help you to recall them.
Good notes provide a valuable means for review and learning, and can increase the probability of doing well on an exam.

SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE YOUR NOTETAKING

1. Think before writing. Relate what is being said to what you already
know or have reviewed. Use your own interests/needs as well as
information common to the course to guide your thoughts.
2. Preparing for class is an aid in helping you to become aware of the
major concepts and in deciding what to record.
3. Be selective. Listen to everything, but do not try to write it all down.
Search for the main ideas and sort out the important sub points and
details. Notes should be brief, legible and consistent.
4. Take accurate notes. Use our own words, but don’t waste time thinking
of synonyms. Lecturer’s terms may be simplified later. Use brackets to
separate your own ideas from those of the lecturer.
5. Abbreviate words whenever possible, but be consistent.
6. Don’t worry about missing a point. Leave spaces and fill what you missed later. Also, leave spaces for expanding and clarifying notes.
7. Record all important facts: dates, names, places, formulas. Copy diagrams and illustrations which will clarify your notes.
8. Draw a single line through mistakes, rather than erase or black out completely. This saves time and energy, and you may find later that the mistakes may have been important to record after all.
9. Integrate lecture notes with text material. This is helpful for clarification and retention of material. If text material is repeated in the lecture, you can make a notation for later referral to the text. Be sure to note supplementary examples or elaborations.
10. Review notes after class. Reread and edit your notes as soon as
possible while the information is still fresh in your mind, adding and
clarifying in order to increase your understanding. Write a summary (a
paragraph or two) or formulate a summary question at the end of your
notes to consolidate ideas and to reflect the relationship of facts and
ideas with each other and as a whole.

Food Science - Unit 2: Carbohydrates

Introduction

Food is composed of three main constituents, namely, carbohydrates, proteins, fats and their derivatives.
In addition these constituents , inorganic mineral elements and diverse organic compounds such as vitamins, pigments, enzymes and acids are also present.
The variation in structure, texture, colour, flavor and nutritive value is because of the varying proportions and arrangement of these constituents.
Knowledge of these constituents, their properties and reactions with other constituents is necessary for a person who processes, severs and stores food.

What are Carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are an important group of nutrients. It is present in various forms in the foods we cook, processed food which we purchase and form the bulk of our diet.

They are organic compounds made up of C, H &. O
They are called carbohydrates because H & O are present in the same proportion as found in water i.e. 2:1.
They are processed in plants by the process of photosynthesis
Chlorophyll is a green pigment which absorbs energy from sunlight and enables plants to build up carbohydrates from CO2 and H20.

Glucose cannot be stored on a large scale so it is converted to starch with the removal of water and is stored in various parts of the plant. E.g. in cereal grains and potatoes CHO is stored as  starch. In bananas, mango and sugar beets it is stored as sugar.
Tender green peas and maize contain carbohydrate in the form of sugar which is converted into starch as the seed matures. However the reverse is seen in the fruits, immature fruits contain starch which is converted into sugar as the fruit ripens.
The various parts of the plant where CHO is stored form the main source of CHO in diet.

Classification of Carbohydrates

MONOSACCHARIDES:

They are the simplest form of CHO found in nature. These simple sugars are made up of a six carbon chain or ring to which hydrogen groups are attached. The general formula is C6H12O6. They differ from one another because of their arrangement of different atoms around the carbon chain and because of this they have different properties and vary in their degree of sweetness.

Glucose- it is the most important CHO used by the body.
 It is absorbed into the blood stream after CHO is digested in the body. It is also known as dextrose. Available in powder and liquid form. It is found in varying amounts in fruits and vegetables. Found in large amount in fruits like grapes, smaller amount in vegetables like peas.

Fructose-It is sweetest of all sugars, is also known as fruit sugar and levulose because it is found in fruits and honey.
In human body it is converted to glucose and oxidized as a source of energy.

Galactose-It is not present in food as such, but produced when lactose a disaccharide is broken down during digestion.

DISSACHARIDES are double sugars composed of two monosaccharides linked together with the removal of a water molecule. These sugars have a general formula C12H22O11
C6H12O6+C6H12O6………C12H22O11

Sucrose-It is table sugar
It is produced in plants by the condensation of glucose and fructose.
It is found in many fruits and vegetables like sugarcane and sugarbeet contain relatively large quantities.
It is from cane and beet that sugar is extracted commercially.

Lactose-It is milk sugar
Made up of one unit of glucose and one unit of galactose.
It is least sweet of all sugars and easily fermented to lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria while preparing curd and cheese.

Maltose-It is made up of two units of glucose.
During the germination of whole grains starch is broken down into maltose
In the body maltose is formed during digestion of starch.


 Oligosaccharide
Any carbohydrate of from three to six units of simple sugars (monosaccharides). A large number of oligosaccharides have been prepared by partially breaking down more complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides). Most of the few naturally occurring oligosaccharides are found in plants.
Raffinose and stachyose may promote the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria, but are currently not considered prebiotics.

Raffinose - also called melitose, is composed of 3 sugars: galactose, glucose and fructose. Examples of foods naturally high in raffinose are beans, asparagus, cotton seeds, sugar beet molasses, cabbage, broccoli, Brussel’s sprouts, sweet potatoes and whole grains . Raffinose as a sweetener is extracted from sugar beet molasses.

Stachyose - Stachyose is composed of 4 sugar molecules: 2 galactoses, glucose and fructose. It is found mainly in beans and peas .


POLYSACCHARIDES  - are complex carbohydrates made up of 100-2000 glucose units linked to each other in chain or branched form. The number of glucose units, their arrangement and linkage to one another influence the properties of the polsaccharides.

Dextrins- They are smallest and simplest of all polysaccharides.
They are formed by dry heating or acid hydrolysis of starch.
They are slightly soluble have a mild sweet taste and limited thickening ability.

Starch-It is found in most parts of the plant as a reserve store of carbohydrate.
It is usually present in the seed and root in large amounts.
Starch consists of long chains of glucose units present in two forms amylose and amylopectin.

STARCH
Amylose –
 It is a large molecule made up of 200 or more glucose units .
They are present as linear chain which can bond to each other by hydrogen bonds and form a gel.
Starches from different sources differ in their amylase content. Amylose does not have sweet taste, is slightly soluble, has good thickening ability and is present 20-30% of total starch in most grains.

Amylopectin –
It is also made up of glucose units only and are present in form of large branched polysaccharide.
The molecules of amylopectin are very large and as it is branched structure it is sparingly soluble, not sweet and is predominant form in the starch granule with low gelling
Cereal starches, such as corn, rice, wheat, oats, sago and tapioca are used as thickening and gelling agents.
Genetic research and plant breeding have enabled us to develop starches containing 100 per cent amylopectin, which are called waxy starch and they do not form gels.  Starch with high amylose has also been developed.

STARCH

EFFECT OF COOKING ON STARCH
GELATINIZATION (wet heat)

Ø  When starch granules are mixed with cold water they do not dissolve but form suspension.

Ø  When the water is heated, the granules begin to swell. The heat energy breaks the hydrogen bonds in the starch granules and facilitates the entry of water into the granules. At the same time some amylose from the granules leaches into the cooking water.
Ø  The starch chains in the granules absorb moisture and begin to uncoil from their tightly packed configuration.
Ø  The size of the granules increase as more and more water enters. The water in the granules gets bonded to amylose and amylopectin.
Ø  The mixture becomes viscous and translucent after continuous heating. Swollen granules find it difficult to move past each other, adding to the viscosity of the mixture.
Ø  This process of swelling of the starch granules and formation of viscous starch paste is called
GELATINIZATION
Ø  The temp at which the granules swell is called the GELATINIZATION TEMPERATURE and is characteristic of each starch.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROPERTIES OF STARCH AS A THICKENING AGENT

1)     MIXING AND STIRRING
Ø  When starch is used as a thickening agent in soups or custards, it should be dispersed completely to prevent unequal swelling or lumps forming in a starch thickened product. This can be achieved by:
a)     Mixing well with cold H2O
b)     Mixing with melted fat to coat starch particles.
c)     Mixing with another dry ingredient.
Ø  Once starch is dispersed continuous stirring is necessary till gelatinization is complete
Ø  Stirring of hot starch pastes prevent lumps and sticking of gelatinized starch to the sides of the pan.
Ø  Excessive stirring of the starch paste can break the starch granules, releasing amylose & amylopectin into the liquid resulting in a less viscous product.

2)     TEMPERATURE
Ø  Starch paste gradually thicken with increase in temp from 52˚C to 65˚C . The starch granules continue to swell & amylose leaches out of the granule. Shorter amylose molecules have more solubility as the temp approaches 90-100˚C, some granules may burst & fragment.
Ø  Continuous heating decreases the viscosity of starches as granules which reach their maximum volume implode and result in thinning of starch pastes. When cool it may thicken again.

3)     TYPE OF STARCH
Ø  Different starches have different thickening power for eg. Potato starch has the greatest thickening power, followed by waxy starches, tapioca , corn , rice , & wheat which has least thickening  power.
Ø  The texture should ideally be smooth & not stringy & mucilaginous. Root starches such as tapioca are mucilaginous. Root starches such as tapioca & potato, are more mucilaginous than cereal starches. They are more trans lucent when gelatinized. Of  all starches, corn starch is the best thickening agent in terms of texture.

4)     EFFECT OF ADDED INGREDIENTS
 Ø  SUGAR:  When sugar is added to starch thickened paste, because of its hygroscopic nature it competes with starch for H2O needed for gelatinization . Gelatinization temp is higher when sugar is added and the time taken for gel is longer. Sugar reduces the viscosity & strength of the gel. It increases translucency.
Ø  ACID :  When starch paste is heated with acid like lime juice at pH below 4 , starch molecules are hydrolyzed into slightly smaller molecules .Acid hydrolysis results in thinning of the starch paste as smaller molecules move freely in the paste. If acid is added after gelatinization of starch , the paste does not turn thin.
Ø  FATS:  Presence of fat in starch – thickened pastes lowers the gelatinization and thickening temp.
Ø  MILK PROTEINS :  Gelatinization temp is lowered if milk is an added ingredient

GELATION

Ø  Gelatinized starch mixture may exhibit flow properties & remain a sol or may cool and set to from a gel.
Ø  The amylose , which has leached  out  of the swollen starch granule , forms Hydrogen  bonds with other amylose molecules as the starch paste cools & loses energy
Ø  Amylose molecules moves slowly forming bonds & a 3 dimensional continuous network of amylose is formed in which swollen granules are trapped
Ø  This forms a continuous phase of the newly formed starch gel in which water is dispersed. The starch mixture is transformed formed into a gel & no longer exhibits flow properties.

FACTORS AFFECTING GELATION

1)     Type of starch
2)     Concentration of starch.
3)     Duration of heating.
4)     Stirring.
5)     Other ingredients.
6)     Aging of gel.

FACTORS AFFECTING GELATION
TYPE OF STARCH

Ø  The proportion of amylose & amylopectin in the starch determines whether  a gel will form & whether  it will be permanent. The straight chains of amylose form bonds quickly & easily while the branches of amylopectin come in the way & prevent formation of firm gel. Starches rich in amylose can form gel at low concentration while starches lack amylose eg. Waxy starches can form soft gels at high concentration.

Ø  Eg. Wheat & rice flours are good thickening agents but poor gelling agents. Chemically modified starches form stable gel.

CONCENTRATION OF STARCH

Ø  Corn starch form a firm gel at 10% concentration while waxy starches lack amylose can for a soft gel at 30% concentration. Starches containing large amounts of amylose will gel at low concentration.
1Tbsp sp starch in 1 cup liquid – thin sauce
2 Tbsp sp starch in 1 cup liquid -medium consistency
3 Tbsp sp starch in 1 cup liquid -thick sauce

DURATION OF HEATING
Ø  When starch is heated along with water the hydrogen bonds in the starch granule break and amylose fraction of starch leaches into the surrounding water.
Ø  A starch paste should be heated gradually for granules to swell and release sufficient amylose to form a gel. Prolonged heating results in fragmentation of amylose and formation of a weak gel with pasty texture.

STIRRING
Ø  Vigorous stirring during heating results in fragmentation of amylose.
Ø  A firm gel forms when paste is allowed to cool undisturbed. Amylose starts forming bonds as the mixture cools and starts gelling. Stirring disrupts the bonds and results in a weak gel.
Ø  Essences and colors should be added to the starch mixture as soon as it is removed from heat and not while mixture is cool.

OTHER INGREDIENTS
Ø  Sugar, acids, etc. modify the behavior of starch gel
Ø  The greater the amount of sugar in the product the more delicate the gel is formed, as sugar prevents water from binding to starch
Ø  Acid hydrolyse the amylose chain resulting in a more tender gel. this is seen when acids are added before gelatinization of starch. If added after gelatinization of starch, the gel is soft because of extra liquid from lime juice or fruit juice.

AGING OF GEL
Ø  In a starch gel water is trapped as dispersed phase within the gel. Water is also bonded by hydrogen bonding to amylose molecules and starch granules which form the matrix of the gel.
Ø  When the gel stales or the structure is disrupted by cutting the gel, water which is trapped in the gel is released and gel collapses. This weeping or loss of moisture from a gel  is called SYNERESIS

RETROGRADATION

Ø  Amylose starches form gel readily but these gels are less stable as amylose chains have a tendency to recoil and partially recrystallize. Some hydrogen bonds which hold the gel together break and amylose molecules move around forming new bonds.

Ø  As the gel stales amylose molecules rearrange themselves in an orderly manner in crystalline regions. This is accompanied by loss of solubility and release of water from the gels, causing food defect.
Ø  Thus retrogradation occurs when a starch gel stales or when it is frozen. A starch gel which has retrograded loses its smooth texture and feels gritty when eaten.
Ø  The rate and extent of retrogradation are influenced by temp, size, shape and concentration of starch. Starch retrogrades rapidly at 0º C.
Ø  The texture defects caused by retrogradation in foods which can be heated are temporarily corrected by warming the food containing starch.
The problem of retrogradation is of concern in cold starch based gels. This can be corrected by using starches which are stable to freezing and thawing.

DEXTRINIZATION (dry roasting of starch)

Ø  When starch is heated without any water, the temp rises rapidly beyond 100C.
Ø   Water which is naturally present in flour and high temp brings about chemical changes or degradation of flour, splitting the starch molecule at one or more of the α1,4 glucosidic linkages. This reaction is called dextrinization and the short chain starch molecules of varying length formed are called dextrins.
Ø  This process is seen when flour is browned while making brown roux for gravies and sauces. Browned flour has lesser thickening ability because of formation of short chain dextrins.

Uses of Carbohydrates in Food Preparation

Starch from various sources in its natural form is used as a thickening and gelling agent in a wide range of products. It is the primary thickening agent used in soups and sauces.
These sauces are used in vegetable and meat based preparations, salads and pastas. It is also used in custard sauce, puddings, pie fillings and soufflés.
Sugar has a wide range of uses apart from sweetening and energy giving. Sugar cookery involves controlled formation of crystals which has a direct bearing on the texture of crystalline candies such as fondants and fudges.

Some uses of Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates	Use
Refined flour	Thickening sauces and soups specially used in the form of a roux.
Rice	Thickening soups and rice puddings
Arrowroot	For clear soups
Tapioca	Used for pudding
Potato	Used for soups which could curdle at high temperatures
Waxy rice flour	White sauces and starch thickened pudding which need to be stored frozen and thawed before cooking.
Corn flour	Thickening soups, sauces, gravies and anti-caking agent.
Pectin	Setting agent in jams, jellies and marmalades
Seaweed extracts	Prevent ice crystal formation in ice cream
Glucose	Used as a humectant in confectionery
Caramel	Used as coloring and flavoring agent in Christmas cake, soup mixes, instant pudding etc.
Invert Sugar	Prevents formation of sugar crystals in preserves and fondants

Conclusion

Carbohydrates are one of the most important constituents of food.

They are manufactured by plants through the process of photosynthesis.
The glucose formed in this process is stored in form of starch to be used as food.
On the basis of saccharides or sugar units they are classified into Mono, Di, Oligo and Poly (saccharides)
Starch is present in two forms, Amylose and Amylopectin.
The food industry depends on natural and modified carbohydrates for specific additive functions in many processed foods.

Barriers To Communication and Overcoming the barriers

Barriers to Communication

There are many reasons why communication may fail. In many communications, the message may not be received exactly the way the sender intended and hence it is important that the communicator seeks feedback to check that their message is clearly understood.

There exist many barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the communication process. Barriers may lead to your message becoming distorted and you therefore risk wasting both time and money by causing confusion and misunderstanding. Effective communication involves overcoming these barriers and conveying a clear and concise message.

Barriers  maybe classified into five types:
I. Mechanical barriers
II. Physical barriers
III. Psychological barriers
IV. Semantic and language barriers
V. Status barriers

 Mechanical barriers: Faulty mechanism:

A communication may not reach properly if the mechanism that carries it breaks down. To take an extreme case, if the computer typing has been done in devnagari, and while taking the printout the computer is in the Roman mode, not a single letter would be understood.
Similarly, if the mirror image of a letter is sent by some mechanical fault, it will be hard to decipher.
Some possible mechanical failures are:
(a) A weak microphone or poor sound spread (acoustics) of the meeting place
(b) Defective telephone lines
(c) Electricity/computer breakdown
(d) Poor printing quality or paper spread of ink, overlap of colours
(e) Atmospherics on radio or TV, especially in a cloudy weather

Physical barriers: noise, space, time:

Sometimes background noise, whether in a face-to-face meeting or at either end of the telephone, reduces the audibility of the spoken word. Also, if the listener is too far from the speaker, he may not be able to hear him, in which case distance is the barrier.
Similarly, the time taken for the message to reach its destination can become a barrier, e.g. a telegram delivered too late.

Psychological barriers:

These are numerous and require greater effort to overcome:

• A person of weak hearing or eyesight cannot always receive the communication in full.
• The age of the listener puts its own limitations on his ability to receive messages. One may be too young or too old to understand certain things.
• A person’s educational level governs his understanding. Some background knowledge is required to understand certain messages.
• Loyalty to a brand or an organisation is also a barrier. One who is loyal to a certain brand may not be receptive to a rival product’s add. One may not be receptive to the praises of an organisation other than one’s own, a team other than one’s countries, and so on.
• Emotional states of a person can act as barriers. If someone is in a fit of anger, he /she may not listen to reason. They may also find it difficult to communicate soberly with a person who has not contributed to his anger. There is a spillover effect – the emotion generated by one transaction spilling over into an unrelated transaction.
• One’s prejudices act as a hindrance to reason. A prejudice is a judgment formed without proper information. One may have a racial prejudice, a caste prejudice and so on. This is the opposite of an open mind. A liberal education is meant to remove irrational notions which stay on as prejudices.
• Personality limitations, too, put a barrier. These are similar to ideological barriers, as some personalities are naturally attracted to certain ideologies. However, personality variations are far too numerous.
• Poor retention power is a barrier. If one fails to take timely notes when instructions are given, hoping to remember them all, one has perhaps given away a part of the communication.

Semantic and language barriers:

Semantics is the study of how words convey meanings. What happens if the speaker/writer means one thing and the listener/reader takes it in another meaning?
An advertiser offered to sell a “big, bad dog”. While the word “bad” is meant to convey its attacking power to guard a house, some readers may take it otherwise. The context changes the meaning of the word.
One has to ask, is the word conveyed in its proper context? Words are indeed so tricky to use that one can hardly ever convey the same thing to all receivers in given words.
The words generate different meanings in different minds, according to their previous associations and language levels. Literary texts, created by master writers and read by expert critics, are continually open to reinterpretations. Some of this conflict with one another.
Yet in business life, dealing with matter-of-fact situations, semantic barriers arise from the inability to read the receiver’s mind. If the sender knows the receiver’s level of understanding, fine. If not, there is a barrier. A good communicator takes the trouble of removing all ambiguity and wrong coloring of words. As a receiver, he tries to read the words and between the lines.

Status barriers:

This again is a kind of psychological barrier, where the higher or lower social status of the other party disables one from expressing one’s meaning fully. A modest farmer, asked to express his problems to a high-ranking official or politician, may feel nervous or ill at ease.
Status symbols (e.g. luxury of the surroundings) may halt communication. A candidate from a modest background may be awestruck to see the glitz and glamour of a multinational company where he has to appear for an interview.
Cultural barriers are a special case of collective psychological barriers. A culture brings its own habits, modes of dressing, greeting, eating, food preferences etc. Most people have an element of xenophobia (fear or aversion of foreigners).
and wrong coloring of words. As a receiver, he tries to read the words and between the lines.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

There are a lot of communication barriers faced these days by all. The message intended by the sender is not understood by the receiver in the same terms and sense and thus communication brain drain occurs. It is essential to deal and cope up with these communication barriers so as to ensure smooth and effective communication.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

1. Eliminating differences in perception: The organization should ensure that it is recruiting right individuals on the job. It’s the responsibility of the interviewer to ensure that the interviewee has command over the written and spoken language. There should be proper Induction program so that the policies of the company are clear to all the employees. There should be proper trainings conducted for required employees (for eg: Voice and Accent training).

2. Use of Simple Language: Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of ambiguous words and jargons should be avoided.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

3. Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main communication barrier which must be overcome on priority basis. It is essential to identify the source of noise and then eliminate that source.

4. Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between “listening” and “hearing”. Active listening means hearing with proper understanding of the message that is heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his/her message is understood or not by the receiver in the same terms as intended by the speaker.

5. Emotional State: During communication one should make effective use of body language. He/she should not show their emotions while communication as the receiver might misinterpret the message being delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the message is in a bad mood then the receiver might think that the information being delivered is not good.

6. Simple Organizational Structure: The organizational structure should not be complex. The number of hierarchical levels should be optimum. There should be a ideal span of control within the organization. Simpler the organizational structure, more effective will be the communication.

7. Avoid Information Overload: The managers should know how to prioritize their work. They should not overload themselves with the work. They should spend quality time with their subordinates and should listen to their problems and feedbacks actively.

8. Give Constructive Feedback: Avoid giving negative feedback. The contents of the feedback might be negative, but it should be delivered constructively. Constructive feedback will lead to effective communication between the superior and subordinate.

9. Proper Media Selection: The managers should properly select the medium of communication. Simple messages should be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or meetings. Use of written means of communication should be encouraged for delivering complex messages. For significant messages reminders can be given by using written means of communication such as : Memos, Notices etc.

10.Flexibility in meeting the targets: For effective communication in an organization the managers should ensure that the individuals are meeting their targets timely without skipping the formal channels of communication. There should not be much pressure on employees to meet their targets.

Conclusion

In organizations, business communication becomes even more important as people working in different departments have to achieve common objectives. The working of inter-personal relationships is possible only through communication.

Apart from binding its various components internally, communication is what links an organisation with the external world. Thus, communication is regarded as the foundation of a successful organisation. No group can exist without communication.

Communication has a significant impact on the ultimate potency of an organisation. It is only through communication that ideas, information, attitudes or emotions get conveyed from one person to another.